The World of the New Testament

Geopolitics

Time and Place. Our sovereign God knew what He was doing.

Why was Jesus’ ministry in the Levant? What is the relevance of knowing what was going on in other places on earth during the time of Jesus Christ? The Levant, the land in which Jesus lived and ministered, was a major trade route between Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is likely that people from all nations and tribes in these continents traveled through the region. Was this a coincidence? No. Our sovereign God knew to place His Son in the Levant so that word could spread throughout the known world of a God-like man who preached forgiveness of sin through faith in Him. It is not unreasonable to conclude that, at least on a few occasions, Jesus taught to crowds that included travelers from Africa, western Europe, Mesopotamia, and the Far East. They would take word about Jesus back to their homelands, planting the seeds for the explosion of Christianity throughout the known world in the centuries to come.
- Why was Jesus’ ministry in the 1^st Century? In the 21^st century, we refer to severe and intolerable pain as being “excruciating.” The root word is the Latin “cruciate”, which refers to the unbearable pain of being crucified on the cross.[1] While crucifixion has been a method of execution used by the Persians, Carthaginians, Macedonians, the Japanese, the Burmese, and in Islamic nations[2], crucifixion is most commonly associated with the Romans who used it to bring fear to all who might consider rebellion from Rome. It is certainly fitting that the Son of God, who became our substitute and bore the guilt of all of our incredible wickedness and evil, had to suffer the most excruciating form of death known to man. This meant that Jesus needed to live during the time of the Roman Empire and, specifically, when the empire dominated the Levant. In addition, with the Roman Empire controlling the entire Mediterranean region, disciples of Jesus were free to spread the gospel throughout Europe, Asia Minor, and Africa. If the Roman Empire was not in place, believers in Jesus would have been stalled at every border they came to.
Palestine. In the 10^th century BC, during the reign of King David’s grandson Rehoboam, a civil war occurred that split the nation of Israel into two separate nations. The ten “Northern Kingdom” tribes of Asher, Dan, Ephraim, Gad, Issachar, Manasseh, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon, and Zebulun joined and became known as the Kingdom of Israel. The two southern tribes, Judah and Benjamin, became known as the Kingdom of “Judah”. Eventually, these former brothers went to war against each other.[3] The Old Testament describes every king of the Northern Kingdom as wicked in the judgement of God. God eventually had enough and led the Assyrians to capture the Northern Kingdom and carry off the people into exile in Assyria in 772 BC.[4] When the Assyrians exiled the tribes of the Northern Kingdom, they relocated Gentiles into the vacated lands and the region became known as Samaria and the people as the “Samaritans”. The Kingdom of Judah also had a long history of wicked rulers. However, they did have a few godly kings (Abijah, Jehoshaphat, Jotham, Hezekiah, and Josiah) who called the people to repentance. Yet, God eventually had enough with them as well. Their land was captured by the Babylonians in 586 BC. The people were exiled to Babylon. Blessed by the Persians, a remnant of Judean Jews returned to Jerusalem from exile in Babylon. Their story is recorded in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The returning Jews repopulated Judea and Galilee. They faced opposition by both the Samaritans, whom the Jews now hated, and the few Judeans who had not been exiled. Alexander the Great took control of the region in 332 BC. After his death, the Egyptian Ptolemies took over. They allowed the Jews complete religious freedom. However, around 200 BC, the Seleucids took over the region and brought the Greek culture with them. This led to the desecration of the temple by Antiochus Epiphanes and a subsequent successful revolt by the Jews led by Judas Maccabee. The Jews regained control of Samaria, Idumea, and Galilee. However, the Romans, with help from Herod the Great, conquered the region only a few decades before the birth of Jesus Christ. After Herod’s death, Herod’s kingdom was divided among his three sons, with Herod Antipas being the most significant with respect to the gospel accounts. When the events of the book of Acts were taking place, the Jews revolted again against Rome. This led to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD (refer to the section about the Olivet Discourse) under Titus. Eventually, the Jews were completely driven out of Judea, referred to as the Diaspora, and into modern-day Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Spain, Italy, Turkey, Iraq, Greece, and Europe.
Rome, Italy. Rome began the building of its empire in the 3rd century BC with victories over Sicily and Carthage. Their victories continued into the 2nd century with triumphs in western Europe, Greece, and the Near East. Their expansion was fueled by their strong military and their policy of assimilating conquered peoples, along with their financial assets, into the Roman culture. However, Roman elites benefited exclusively from this success causing a further divide between the haves and have nots (the plebians) in Roman society. A civil war erupted that led to the weakening of the Senate and the consuls who had allied themselves with the elites. General Gaius Marius took up the cause of the plebians and gave land to soldiers. In the first century, he was exiled by Lucius Cornelius Sulla who crushed the pro-plebian movement with brutality and restored power to the elites. Spartacus led another revolt by the plebians that marched across Italy. He was defeated by Crassus in 71 BC. Crassus entered into a partnership with Julius Caesar in 60 BC. Caesar had gained power through defeating the Gauls. When Crassus died, Caesar and Pompey battled for control. Caesar gained total dictatorial power around 45 BC. He was murdered on March 15, 44 BC by Cassius and Brutus, two senators who were against his dictatorship. Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, the Second Triumvirate, divided the empire into three. Lepidus was defeated by the other two. Antony married Cleopatra of Egypt and ruled in Egypt as Pharaoh. War broke out between Octavian and Antony. In 30 BC, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, leaving Octavian as sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Octavian worked out a deal with the Senate wherein they legitimized his authority over the people and gave him the honorary title of “Augustus”. Jesus was born in Bethlehem in 4 BC. Roman expansion into western Europe ground to a halt in Germany. Augustus died in 14 AD and was replaced by His adopted son, Tiberius. Tiberius ruled throughout the life of Jesus. He was followed by Caligula in 37 AD, Claudius in 41 AD, and Nero in 54 AD. Rome burned in 64 AD and Nero blamed the followers of Jesus, beginning a season of widespread persecution. In 68-69, Rome experienced a year of incredible instability as Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian came to power in succession. The Jews were crushed in the destruction of Jerusalem by General Titus in 70 AD.
Phoenicia. The Baal-worshipping Phoenicians originated from the area around Tyre. Their colony of Carthage, located in modern-day Tunisia, became the leading power of the western Mediterranean. Rome defeated the Carthaginians in the First Punic War in the 3^rd century BC. Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca occupied much of Spain. In the Second Punic War, his son, Hannibal, crossed the Alps and defeated the Romans in 218 BC. His intent was to invade Rome, but he was defeated and forced out of Italy and Spain around 206 BC. Hannibal eventually committed suicide to avoid being captured by the Romans. Rome crushed the Carthaginians in the Third Punic War in the 2^nd century BC.

Greece. The Macedonians became the leading power in Greece under the reign of Philip II. His success was attributed to the weakness of the various Greek states after the Peloponnesian War. His son, Alexander the Great, who was educated by Aristotle, conquered much of the known world, bringing along Greek culture into distant lands with his armies. He conquered the Persians (who had encouraged Nehemiah and the remnant to return to Jerusalem) who had conquered the Babylonians (who had sent the Israelites into exile). Alexander peacefully became the pharaoh of Egypt, establishing the city of Alexandria. However, Alexander’s requirement that he be treated as a god led to a mutiny by his military that put an end to goals for further expansion. He died in 323 BC as a result of being gradually poisoned by one of his many enemies. A struggle for power immediately followed Alexander’s death. This led to the advancement of the Seleucids, founded by Seleucus I Nicator, in Syria (and east to India). His descendent, Antiochus III, conquered many lands of interest to Rome. This led to conflict with the Roman Empire that lasted over a century, finally coming to an end in 64 BC with a victory by Roman general Pompey. Another successor of Alexander, Ptolemy I Soter, took control of Egypt. The last of the Ptolemy rulers was Cleopatra VII (51 BC). Her lovers included the Roman emperor Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony. Both Cleopatra and Mark Anthony committed suicide when Octavian entered Alexandria just a couple of decades before the birth of Jesus. Antipater rose to power in Macedonia after the death of Alexander the Great. Alexander’s mother, Olympias, also took claim to power. A series of alliances and murders occurred. Antipater’s son Cassander annihilated all opposition. However, Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his son, Demetrius I Poliorcetes, came from the far east and invaded Greece. Poliorcetes restored the power of Macedonia throughout Greece and Asia Minor. Philip V allied himself with the Carthaginian general Hannibal in 215 BC to take on Rome in the west. The resulting conflict led to total Roman victory and the expansion of the Roman Empire.
India. Alexander the Great had conquered India around 327 BC, bringing Greek culture to the subcontinent. His successors were defeated by forces aligned with Chandragupta Maurya. The Mauryan Dynasty expanded its territory into what is now known as Afghanistan. His grandson, Asoka, came to the throne and converted to Buddhism, avowing to never wage war again. Through his encouragement, Buddhist missionaries went throughout the known world. The Mauryan Dynasty came to an end around 185 BC. India was then overrun by nomadic tribes that established kingdoms in India. These nomadic tribes brought about in India a renaissance of Hinduism (belief in many gods, castes, and reincarnation) and the elimination of Buddhism (rejection of a caste society and its belief that suffering leads to nirvana, the escape from the cycle of reincarnation).
Persia. In the 4^th century BC, the Parni, a tribe of nomads based near the Caspian Sea, began building their empire. By the 1^st century BC, their ruler Mithradates II ruled from the Euphrates to the Indus River in what is today Russia, Kashmir, and Pakistan. However, various Parthian provincial governors desired independence from the regime. Rome took advantage of this and, by supporting the rebel governors, eventually conquered the Parthinians under the leadership of Trajan in the 1^st century AD.
Celts, Slavs, and Germanic Tribes. The Celts[5], otherwise known as the “Gauls”, were disassociated tribes, ruled by royals and nobilities, that dwelt near the Danube and Rhine Rivers in western Europe. The Druids, Britons, and Anglo-Saxons are examples of such tribes. The Celts began attacking Rome in the 4^th century BC. They sacked Rome in 390 BC on their way to conquering lands in the Balkans and Greece. They were eventually defeated by Antiochus I of Syria in 274 BC. However, the Celts did not return to western Europe. They settled into what became known as Galatia. It was their ancestors to whom Paul wrote the book of Galatians. When attacked by warmongering Germanic tribes, the Celts asked for help from the Romans. The Romans obliged and subjugated both the Celts and the Germanic tribes, enabling Rome to expand west into what is today France and Belgium. However, the Celts on the British Isles were able to maintain their independence from Rome after being briefly occupied by them. Roman culture, and their Latin language, infiltrated western Europe.
China. China consisted of seven individual states in the 3^rd century BC. They were conquered by the iron fisted Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di circa 221 BC.[6] He implemented tight federal control of all aspects of Chinese life. However, his administration did foster a unified language and economy within the nation. Kao Ti, the first emperor of the Han dynasty, took over after Qin’s death in 210 BC. The Han dynasty was under continuous attack by nomadic tribes such as the Xiongnu. The dynasty made contact with western nations to seek assistance. This led to the creation of the Silk Road to the west in the 2^nd century BC, no doubt bringing Chinese merchants into contact with Jesus of Nazareth in the 1^st century AD. The Chinese people back in the day worshipped ancestors as well as various spirits and deities in nature. Both Taoism (living in harmony with nature) and Confucianism (living a moral and ethical life) dominated ancient Chinese culture at the time of Jesus Christ.[7]

North Africa. Phoenician and Greek colonies developed on the North African coast in the millennium prior to the birth of Jesus. These colonies would eventually be conquered by the Carthaginians and Egyptians. The Numidians gained power after the Carthaginians lost to Rome in the Punic Wars in the 3^rd century BC. The Numidians ran afoul of Rome and were eventually defeated. When Rome took over North Africa in the 1^st century AD, the region flourished, allowing for the quick spread of Christianity. Around the time of King David, Egypt took an interest in the gold in Nubia (present day Sudan) and eventually annexed the Kushites (or Cushites) into Egypt. The Kushites eventually took over Egypt in the 7^th century BC. Their empire continued during the time of Christ.

The Geography of the Levant[8]

The three key regions of significance to the gospels are Galilee up north (Nazareth, Capernaum), Judea down south (Bethlehem, Jerusalem), and Samaria in between. Galilee was known for its wheat, Samaria for its olives, and Judah for its grapes.
There are four geographic zones in the Bible lands. Starting at the Mediterranean and heading east, you have the coastal plain, the central mountain range, the Jordan Valley, and the Transjordan Plateau.
The coastal plain was rich in natural resources and received plenty of rain. It was the route of choice for southbound travelers going to Egypt and Africa and northbound travelers heading towards Europe, Asia Minor, and points east. A problem with the coastal plain was that shoreline was shallow, making it difficult to establish and maintain deep water ports that could compete with ports in other lands.
Heading east from the coastal plain, you would have to climb over mountains, some as high as 3,300 feet. The mountains were tallest in northern Galilee, moderately high in Judea in the south, and lower in Samaria in the middle, where the valleys were broader. These mountains made east-west travel very difficult for people on foot. The northwestern slopes received more rain than the southeastern slopes.
The Jordan Valley, which includes the Jordan River, extends north to south from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea. The northern area of the valley receives more rainfall than the southern area, where the barren Judean Wilderness dominates the landscape. Salt from the Dead Sea area was mined and shipped throughout the Levant. The Sea of Galilee is about 13 miles long and 7 miles wide, totaling 64 square miles. The Jordan River, which has an average width of 100’, a depth of 10’ flows south from the Sea of Galilee. Its whitewater rapids were too violent for transporting goods and people.
A cool breeze from the Mediterranean Sea often blew in from the west in the morning, reaching Jerusalem around noon. However, a competing hot and dry wind also blew from the desert in the east. This was the perfect set of conditions for the creation of sudden storms. The Sea of Galilee is known for bad weather. East winds bring hot air from the desert that encounters the cold air from the west, causing winds to rush down the mountains, sometimes over 60 MPH, into the sea. Waves of 10’ or more have been encountered by fishermen and have hit towns on the western shore. It is best to have your house built on rocks.
The Transjordan Plateau lies to the east of the Jordan River and rises, in some places, to over 5,000’ above the river. It contains the lands of Gilead, Moab, and Edom. Rainfall significantly diminishes the further east and south you go on the plateau. In those places agriculture is replaced by the raising of sheep and goats. The ancient King’s Highway, an international trade route running north-south, lies on this plateau.

Daily Life in the Levant[9]

In the absence of modern forms of transportation, people spent most of their lives within close proximity to their home. A journey of even 50 miles was a momentous occasion.[10] It has been estimated that the average traveler walked up to 20 miles a day.[11] People traveled on routes that avoided steep climbs over mountains, the heat of the desert, swamps, arid lands, wild animals, and criminals. Criminals ambushed lonely travelers, as evidenced by the parable of the Good Samaritan. Therefore, a journey to a distant land often required that individuals wait until a caravan of people set out for a destination. Combining this reality with the fact that people did not have telephones or the Internet, most people only knew their friends, family, and neighbors who lived nearby.
News came into a city only by residents returning from a distant land or by visitors coming into town. The activity at the town gate became vitally important for residents who wanted to keep up with what was going on in the world. Some of the gates were wide enough for carts with goods and materials. Other gates were narrow, allowing only a single person to pass through it. It was at the wide gates where the leaders of the community gathered to talk and interact with those entering in and leaving the city.
The cities in New Testament times had a relatively small footprint compared to cities we know today. The population had to live within the city walls or adjacent to them where they could flee if armies approached. As the populations grew, the limited space became more crowded with buildings and people. Outer walls were constructed to protect the expanding neighborhoods.
There were no bookstores to purchase copies of God’s law. Therefore, attending the synagogue and listening to the reading of God’s law were essential for the faithful. The synagogue became the place to see and be seen.
The people continued to believe that the atonement for their sin was through animal sacrifice. Therefore, an annual trek to the temple in Jerusalem, joined by family and neighbors, was essential in the life of an Israelite. A vast industry in Jerusalem was created to meet the demand, including the shepherds who watched the flocks around Bethlehem.
Most people were poor. Their small homes, with additional living space on the flat roof, were made of mud bricks and were sparsely furnished. They were connected to other similar homes around a common courtyard, a recipe for a lack of privacy. Their bedding and their tables were most likely mats that were rolled onto the dirt floors. A single menorah lit the home after the dark.
Due to the arid land of the region, as well as the frequent droughts, having enough water for drinking, cleaning, and cooking, and for flocks and herds, was a major problem discussed daily in the homes of ancient Israel. Generally speaking, it didn’t rain between mid-June to mid-September. The summer months became the time for travel and war because farming was poor during that season. However, between mid-September to mid-June of the following year, people took advantage of the increased precipitation to farm. It has been estimated that Americans in the 21^st century enjoy 98% more water than those who lived in the Promised Land during Bible times. Travelers needed to bring enough water in wineskins to last throughout their journey. The wealthy stored fresh water in large jars, the same kind of jars Jesus used to perform His first miracle at the wedding. People fought over access to wells and cisterns. Governments invested money in aqueducts. Springs of water became a favorite place to go for leisure. People most likely bathed periodically in the Jordan River. [12]
Food consisted primarily of fruits, vegetables, milk products, fish, and bread. Meat was a delicacy that was consumed only a few times a year at special occasions. Bread was critical to the daily diet of people in the New Testament. It consisted of ground grain and a liquid, and it was kneaded and baked. Bread was usually eaten at home or carried when traveling between villages and cities. The typical family needed about three loaves of bread a day. Life without daily bread was unimaginable. Fish were readily available for consumption, though they had to be eaten within hours of having been caught due to the lack of refrigeration.
Fig trees were prominent throughout Palestine. Figs were an important source of food for many animal species. If you had your own fig tree, you were considered wealthy.
The common occupations in Jesus’ day included farm workers, fishermen, temple and synagogue staff, inn keepers, bankers, tax collectors, druggists, tentmakers, potters, masons, tanners, merchants, coppersmiths, goldsmiths, silversmiths, founders, carpenters, soldiers, political leaders, servants of the wealthy, and shepherds.
It is estimated that nearly 50% of the population in New Testament times were slaves of some kind. Therefore, the other 50% would be masters. A slave was not necessarily what we think of them to be in the 21^st century. In the absence of loans and payment plans that we are accustomed to in our day, people, including business professionals, often paid off their debts by functioning as servants. Some people found security by agreeing to a lifetime of servitude to a wealthy master who pledged to provide for his servant’s basic needs in perpetuity.
There were two forms of government that ruled over the people. The Roman governor, and his administration, functioned as law and order. They controlled the military, the policing of the people, and the punishment, and crucifixion, of criminals. This is why the religious leaders turned to Pontius Pilate to crucify Jesus. The other government was Jewish and was led by the royal family line of Herod the Great. This government managed everything else in society. An Israelite had to make sure he did not offend either authority. Jesus was falsely accused of offending both.
The judges of the day were the Great Sanhedrin and the Lesser Sanhedrin.
Unlike today’s prisons, where prisoners are locked in cells, prisoners of the day were chained to walls and, as with Paul, sometimes chained to Roman guards. Guards were threatened that if the prisoner escaped the guard would receive the punishment meant for the prisoner.
The typical Israelite longed for independence from Roman domination of their land. This explains, in part, why Jesus attracted so many followers and why so many of those followers turned against Him when they realized He was not their political savior. The people presumed that He would lead a successful uprising against Rome similar to what Judas Maccabee had accomplished against the Seleucids two centuries before.
Horses were associated with the Roman military or invading foreign armies. Soldiers on horseback, or riding on chariots, racing towards a citizen was a truly terrifying sight. Hence, John used the metaphor of the four horsemen in Revelation.
Marriages were usually arranged by the parents of both families when a boy and a girl were children. The groom’s family paid a dowry to enter into a business contract with the girl’s family. After the engagement, the young man would prepare a home for his bride-to-be, and then come back to her and take her to their new home. The wedding would then be celebrated by a feast. Jesus used this reality as a metaphor that He will return to heaven, prepare a place for us, and then come back to bring us home to Him and celebrate His marriage with His church by a wedding feast.
Women were considered second-class citizens. They did not have the same rights and opportunities as men and their testimony was not considered valid in legal matters. It was fairly easy for men to divorce their wives. Generally speaking, women didn’t have the right to divorce their husbands.
Salt was used as a food preservative and as a disinfectant. It is believed salt was even used by Roman soldiers as currency.
People used olive oil in pottery lamps for the lighting in their home. The wealthier the family, the more decorative the lamps. The more oil a family had, the wealthier they were considered to me.
There was trash in the New Testament times as there is today. With houses tightly packed together and near the street, it is likely that a family’s trash might be “thrown out and trampled underfoot.”[13]
Trumpets were made of ram’s horns. They were blown at special festivals and to herald the arrival of seasons. Apparently, those with access to the trumpets, who wanted attention, blew them to make everyone turn and see what they had to say.
Given that people did not have large wardrobes, moths were a serious problem for people with only a few things to wear.
Burglary must have been a problem in that society, especially for the wealthier classes. In the absence of modern-day firearms, inexpensive locks, and alarm systems, the best burglary deterrent was to stay at home, to hire guards, or to be physically threatening to intruders.
The people tracked time during the day by the use of sundials and tracked time at night by the movement of stars. They allocated 12 hours from sunrise to sunset, even when the daylight shortened in winter. Therefore, an hour in mid-summer was longer than an hour in winter.
Barns were used for storing grain/wheat, seed, and “every kind of provision.” People made business decisions to tear down barns and build bigger ones.
Clothes were made from wool, linen, skins, and, for the wealthy people, silk. Both men and women wore underwear. Shawls were worn by men on top of cloaks, which was like a wrap. Women’s clothing was similar, though the items were usually longer, more decorative, and made of finer material.
Since the vast majority of the people went from place to place by walking on dirt roads, wearing inexpensive sandals without much fabric and leather, foot washing became a major facet of the culture. Hosts would provide basins and towels for their guests to wash their feet upon their arrival. Instead of each disciple washing his own feet, Jesus washed their feet the night of the Last Supper.
How else do you get someone’s attention in this society without telephones and emails? You go to their home and knock on their door.
Wild dogs and wolves were a serious problems for the people of Palestine. We gather from Habakkuk 1:8 that wolves were especially fierce at dusk. Acts 20:9 tells us that shepherds had to continuously fight off wolves, no doubt with the rod mentioned in Psalm 23. Wolves were known to come into cities as well as terrify travelers in rural areas. The northern area of the Jordan Valley was infested with lions, bears, and hyenas as well.
There are 42 species of snakes in the Palestine region. These snakes are nocturnal, avoiding the heat of the day. Nine of these species are venomous and seven of those are found in the wilderness in the south (see Deuteronomy 8:15). The most feared snakes are the vipers (Proverbs 23:32). The cobra is mentioned in Psalm 58:4. Numbers 21 speaks of the Lord sending venomous snakes among the people. Snakes were believed to be hidden in walls (Ecclesiastes 10:11).
Roman religions were influential in the Levant. Many Romans were animistic. They worshipped spirits that dwelled in nature, such as in rivers, woods, and springs. There were gods for specific purposes, such as the penates which were the spirits of the pantry. Other Romans, influenced by Greek culture, believed in a variety of deities, including Jupiter, Hera, Neptune, Mars, Minerva, Diana, Mercury, Bacchus, Faunus, Venus, and Apollo. The worship of Isis was brought into the culture from Egypt. Roman citizens often had statues of these gods in their homes. The worship of Caesar grew as the office of Roman Emperor became more powerful and influential. All of these deities left people confused – which god do I cry out to for help with my particular problem? The idea that there is one God, and that God is our “Father”, whose Son is Jesus Christ, was a foreign concept to many in that culture.
There were four key philosophies, with Greek origins, that dominated Roman culture and influenced the people of the Levant.[14]
- The Stoics believed that reason was the highest authority. It is greater than emotions. They also believed that God and reason are one and, therefore, God is in this world and not separate from it. They did not believe in life after death. They were deterministic, believing circumstances are pre-determined and there isn’t much that can be done about that but to accept it and live with it. Hence, we refer to someone today who remains unemotional in a crisis as being stoic. The gospel was a challenge to Stoics who could not comprehend a personal relationship with a God who can change the circumstances of our lives. They also struggled to understand eternal life.
- The Epicureans had much in common with 21^st century secularists and humanists. They rejected religion and embraced the satisfaction of human desire. People should pursue happiness and fulfillment and not worry about the moral absolutes of either culture or religion. Like the Stoics, they did not believe in life after death. Therefore, party like there is no tomorrow because, well, there isn’t any tomorrows after we die. Gods, if they existed, were distant, impersonal, and irrelevant. Jesus’ message that the Father cares about our lives and holds us accountable was a foreign concept to Epicureans. They could not grasp the concept of the resurrection of the dead.
- We see individuals in our 21^st century culture who reject normal conventions for appearance and behavior. They seem to scream, “I hate being told how to act by society. I’ll do whatever I want to do.” It is their desire to shock people. These individuals most closely align with 1^st century Cynics. The Cynics may have been attracted to Jesus’ dismissal of the all-pervasive conventions of the religious leaders. However, at the same time, they would find it difficult to embrace being accountable to God for their lives.
- The Skeptics believed that absolute truth cannot be known with certainty. What we think is truth may not really be true and/or is not true for others. The only choice we have is to go along with what seems to be the best choice for us given our particular set of circumstances and our point of view. Jesus preached absolute truth, the unfailing and comprehensive will of God as expressed through His law. His teachings were foreign to the Skeptics.

[1] While there are many horrific ways to die, such as being burned alive, crucifixion is not surpassed by any other method of death in its horror. The Son of God was so terrorized by the prospect of experiencing it that He sweated blood (Luke 22:44).

[2] Source: Wikipedia.

[3] 2 Kings 16:5.

[4] Many believe the ten tribes of Israel have disappeared from history. Where did they go? It is believed that they were assimilated into other people groups, thereby appearing to vanish from the face of the earth. Some believe their descendants now dwell in Europe and the United States.

[5] The legend of King Arthur is of Celtic origin.

[6] His grave contains the 6,000 life-size terracotta men and horses that were discovered by farmers in March 29, 1974.

[7] Interestingly, the golden rule of Confucianism is to “not do to others what you wouldn’t want them to do to you.” We can contrast that with Jesus words in Luke 6:31. It is very likely that Jesus had heard of this saying in Confucianism, thanks to merchants coming into the Levant from China along the Silk Road.

[8] Source: Discovery House Bible Atlas, by John A. Beck.

[9] Some of the bullets in this section will be repeated in the notes on the Sermon on the Mount.

[10] At the pace of 3 mph, a journey of 50 miles would take 16-17 hours. That is a two to four day journey that requires carrying bedding, water, food, and cooking tools.

[11] For you Fitbit fans, that’s over 40,000 steps in a single day.

[12] Source: Discovery House Bible Atlas, by John A. Beck.

[13] Matthew 5:13.

[14] Source: The Story of Philosophy by Bryan Magee.